Evolution of economic development theory

Here is Justin Lin’s chart:

More on Lin’s New Structural Economics here.

Nepal’s FY 2011/12 budget: Finance Minister Adhikari’s disappointing budget

A review of the budget for FY 2011/12 presented by Finance Minister Bharat Mohan Adhikari to the parliament on July 16, 2011. Here is a summary of the budget.

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Adhikari’s disappointing budget

Like last year, the drama during the presentation of the budget for fiscal year 2011/12 to the parliament by Finance Minister Bharat Mohan Adhikari was no less shameful and humiliating. Last year, the then Finance Minister Surendra Pandey’s was manhandled and his briefcase snatched and smashed by UCPN (Maoist) affiliated parliamentarians. This year the budget speech was delayed due to obstruction by the United Democratic Madhesi Front (UDMF), which argued that their demands were not incorporated in the budget. Meanwhile, Adhikari and his team leaked the budget to journalists and then later on in the website of Ministry of Finance before he even finished reading the full text. The budget speech brought to end the series of drama involving white paper and supplementary budget, and the furor created by cooperatives biased program and policies.

Instead of commenting on the various programs and handsome allocation for social sector and various marginalized communities and groups, I will focus on the macroeconomic challenges that the budget is addressing or should have addressed. It has largely failed to do so.

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Budget allocation for FY 2011-2012
	Rs, billion	Percent of total budget	Percent increase from last FY
Total expenditure	384.9	100	13.91
Recurrent	266.61	69.27	40.09
Capital	72.61	18.86	-43.95
Financing (loan & share investment)	25.38	6.59
Principal repayment	20.3	5.27	10.21
Development expenditure	202.56	52.63	13.41
General administration expenditure	182.34	47.37	14.47
Total Income	317.83	82.57	12.71
Revenue	241.77	62.81	11.60
Principal refund	5.93	1.54
Foreign grants	70.13	18.22	7.33
Deficit	67.07	17.43	19.96
Deficit financing	67.07	17.43	19.96
Foreign loans	29.65	7.70	33.38
Domestic borrowing	37.41	9.72	11.07
FY 2011-12 full annex

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Let us start with some basic statistics. The mammoth expenditure plan is 14% higher than last year’s budget and 25.67% higher than the revised estimate. Of the total Rs 384.9 billion expenditure, recurrent expenditure accounts for 69.27%, capital expenditure 18.86%, financing (new addition to the budget’s expenditure heading) 6.59%, and principal repayment 5.27%.

The total income (earlier it used to be total revenue) to partially finance the expenditure is estimated to be Rs 317.83, which is 82.57% of total budget and 12.71% increase from last year. Of this income, revenue would account for 62.81% of total budget, principal refund 1.54% and foreign grants 18.22%.

This leaves a hole in the expenditure-income balance sheet of around Rs 67.07 billion, which is 17.43% of total budget and 19.96% increase over last year. This deficit is to be covered by foreign loans and domestic borrowing accounting for 7.70% and 9.72% of total expenditure respectively.

Based on expenditure allocation, education sector is top priority, followed by local development, and physical planning and works. While it has addressed some of the issues in the social sector, which is usually done in every budget, it has failed to address our pressing macroeconomic challenges: low growth rate, high inflation, balance of payments deficit, ballooning trade deficit, eroding competitiveness of our economy and its productive capacities, slump in manufacturing sector, and liquidity and banking crises. These should have been prioritized more than the obsession with cooperatives, which are seen as a panacea to all the problems in every sector or product. The budget should ideally focus on what gives us the biggest bang for buck to resolve the above mentioned economic challenges.

First, the size of the budget is ever-increasing without having much impact on the economy. Before increasing its size, we should analyze if last year’s budget targets were met. GDP growth rate was expected to be 4.5%, inflation 7% and BoP surplus of Rs 9 billion. None of these targets were achieved. In reality, GDP growth rate is expected to be 3.5%, inflation is still hovering around 10%, and BoP deficit is to be around Rs 12 billion. Without any concrete plan to resolve the thorny issues in non-agricultural sector, FM Adhikari expects growth rate to be 5%, inflation below 7% and balance of payments (BoP) to remain positive. There is no vision to realize these targets and by looking at the existing plans they won’t be realized. Worse, it might be even exacerbate them.

The sheer increase in the size of the budget without corresponding increase in capital expenditure and the increase in salary and allowance of civil servants by 30.39 - 42.86% will exert inflationary pressure on the already high and sticky price level. In fact, capital expenditure has been slashed by at least 24% (if you exclude financing, it would be around 44%) to accommodate for salary hike and various pet projects of the political parties. This will not add to productive capacity of the economy but fuel up prices, which will most probably be double-digit for the whole year.

Second, there are hardly any specific programs to promote exports, whose decline along with ballooning imports have widened trade deficit to unsustainable level. This is also contributing to BoP deficit. Apart from half-hearted revenue incentives such as tax breaks and promise to enact Industrial Enterprise Act in line with Special Economic Zone Act, which is yet to be tabled in the parliament despite completion of necessary homework, there isn’t much for the exports sector. It says that export promotion incentives will be based on Nepal Trade Integration Strategy (NTIS) recommendations, which are to be further recommended by the concerned ministry. In fact, the budget for ‘mainstreaming industry, trade and service sector’—one of the seven pillars of our economy as identified by the National Planning Commission— is allocated Rs 7.24 billion only. The budget is ignoring the dire need to revive exports and manufacturing sectors.

Third, instead focusing on the second point mentioned above, FM Adhikari has wrongly diagnosed the economic challenges and focused in promoting cooperatives in virtually all sector and products. Various grants, concessional loans, and custom incentives are given to cooperatives by arguing that they will not only help in employment generation and to make economy self-reliant, but also to increase exports and in import substitution. This policy to sideline the private sector and encourage cooperatives to encroach in its terrain with the help of distorted policy will further affect economic growth and the ailing industrial sector. In fact, several of the promises made to the private sector in last year’s budget remain unfulfilled.

Fourth, the budget is inconsistent with Three Year Plan 2011-2013, which aims to achieve 5-6 percent growth rate, lower absolute poverty to below 21 percent, generate 200,000 jobs, and encourage private sector to invest 64 percent of the needed investment of Rs 359.3 billion. Looking at the way private sector has been sidelined and its genuine demands unaddressed, the budget will neither help to attain the kind of investment needed to realize the goals of the interim plan nor will achieve growth rate above 5%. The budget simply is not in sync with previous medium term policies.

Fifth, the budget has relaxed cap in disclosing sources of income while purchasing vehicle, shares, real estate and housing. Similarly, NRNs and foreigners are allowed to invest in share market and housing sector. This will help to address liquidity crunch to some extent. However, by doing so it has postponed the inevitable, i.e. restructuring and consolidation of the BFIs. Furthermore, the incentive for merger in the form of waving of registration fees is not enough to consolidate the financial sector. Importantly, a real danger is that the increased domestic borrowing (Rs 37.41) to finance deficit might mop up the already scarce liquidity from the market. This might crowd out private investment and further intensify liquidity crunch.

Sixth, foreign aid (grants plus loans) accounts for almost 26% of total budget, an increase by 13.9% over last year’s budget. Since the government was unable to mobilize even last year’s target, increasing target for this year is not going to be fruitful. Importantly, this target has been raised even after conceding in the budget that foreign aid absorption capacity is eroding. Similarly, the higher revenue mobilization target is not going to be realized if the failure in doing so last year is any indicator. Revenue collection in FY 2010/11 is to fall short by almost Rs 10 billion of the targeted Rs 216.64 billion.

Overall, the budget lacks focus and vision, and is biased toward cooperatives. This is a listless budget with no tooth to make real impact on productive capacity and to address the most pressing macroeconomic challenges.

[Published in Republica, 2011-07-17, p.6]

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Nepal’s budget for FY 2011-2012

After much drama Finance Minister Bharat Mohan Adhikari has finally presented the budget to the parliament. Here are some of the stuff as I read from the budget speech.

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• Expenditure: The size of the budget is Rs 384.9 billion, almost 14% higher than last year’s budget (and 25.67% higher than revised estimate). Recurrent expenditure is Rs 266.61 billion (69.27% of total budget). Capital expenditure is Rs 72.61 billion (18.86% of total budget). Financing, which is a new addition to the expenditure-revenue sheet, is Rs 25.38 billion (6.59% of total budget) and principal repayment is Rs 20.3 billion (5.27% of total budget).
• Development expenditure is Rs 202.56 billion (52.63% of total budget) and general administration expenditure is Rs 182.34 billion (47.37% of total budget). The former is an increase by 13.41% and the latter 14.47% from last year.
• Income: The total income of the government is expected to be Rs 317.83 billion, which is 12.71% higher than last year’s total revenue projection. Total revenue is expected to be Rs 241.77 billion (11% increase over last year), principal refund Rs 5.93 billion and foreign grants Rs 70.13 billion (17.43% of total budget).
• Deficit financing: The difference between total expenditure and total income is budget deficit, which is Rs 67.07 billion. This is expected to be covered by Rs 29.65 billion foreign loan and Rs 37.41 billion domestic borrowing. Deficit financing is 17.43% of total budget and it has increased by 19.96% from last year.

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Budget allocation for FY 2011-2012
	Rs, billion	Percent of total budget	Percent increase from last FY
Total expenditure	384.9	100	13.91
Recurrent	266.61	69.27	40.09
Capital	72.61	18.86	-43.95
Financing (loan & share investment)	25.38	6.59
Principal repayment	20.3	5.27	10.21
Development expenditure	202.56	52.63	13.41
General administration expenditure	182.34	47.37	14.47
Total Income	317.83	82.57	12.71
Revenue	241.77	62.81	11.60
Principal refund	5.93	1.54
Foreign grants	70.13	18.22	7.33
Deficit	67.07	17.43	19.96
Deficit financing	67.07	17.43	19.96
Foreign loans	29.65	7.70	33.38
Domestic borrowing	37.41	9.72	11.07
FY 2011-12 full annex

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• The Finance Minister argues that his budget will be able to “accelerate economic growth and ensure equitable development by increasing investment in public, private and cooperative sectors and by bringing dynamism in the economy.”
• Expected growth rate of 5%, with inflation 7% and BoP to remain positive.
• Education (Rs 63.9 billion) is the top priority, followed by local development (Rs 44.5 billion) and physical planning and works (Rs 43.9 billion).

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Few points from the budget:

• Public service delivery: market monitoring to check artificial rise in prices; improving supply system and service delivery by establishing Fair Price Shops. Against cartels and obstruction of supply; address food insecurity in remote areas; upgrade of existing SAARC Food Security Storage and National Food Security Storage; implement recommendation of High Level Committee to reform supply of petroleum products
• Development program in remote areas: capital subsidy for agriculture, herbs and fruits production, collection and processing through cooperatives in Kalikot, Jumla, Humla, Mugu, Dolpa, Jajarkot, Achham, Bajhang, Bajura and Darchula; economic, social infrastructure and services in Karnali and nearby districts; ‘One Family One Employment’ program in Karnali to be expanded gradually to other areas as employment guarantee-- focus in those areas with low human development index and infrastructure such as Jajarkot, Achham, Bajhang and Bajura;
• Agriculture sector: increase in subsidy in fertilizer and seeds; land pooling to increase production and productivity; several specific products focused incentives and subsidies
• Cooperatives: “Cooperatives in Villages, Employment at Every Household” program; to be established as strong pillar by building economic base and utilizing local resources, capital and labor; seed money to cooperatives run by women; concessional loans; assistances to tea cooperative; establish National Cooperative Federation by giving Rs 10 million; concessional loans to cooperatives investing in micro-hydro power projects of up to 1MW.
• Infrastructure: money for many highways feasibility studies; expedite construction of postal highway; fast track highway; repair and reconstruction of bridges; expansion of railways
• Energy crisis: Hydropower Development and Investment Company with paid up capita of Rs 8 billion already registered; master plan on hydropower development; study and implementation of reservoir projects; request NRNs to invest in hydropower project of 100 MW; extension of national grid and transmission line; too many slogan filled programs
• Irrigation: construction of canals and irrigation facilities; mostly in Terai;
• Employment: collateral free loan facility of up to Rs 200,000 per person under Youth Self Employment Program; skill based and professional training programs; youths to be incentivized to work in call centers, medical transcription, account, service business; trade union education program; training to remitters to enhance skill; remittance income to be mobilized according to investment proposal drawn out by a high level task force
•  Tourism: airport upgrade; Nepal to be established as model tourism country of the world within 15 years; exploration of new tourist destinations; infrastructure and tourism service development in 17 destinations; modern conference hall to be built in Butwal;
• Private sector development: PPP model to be promoted; security in industrial zones and declare them as zone of peace; international investment forum to be held to attract investment in industries having comparative and competitive advantage; separate electricity feeders to be installed in Biratnagar, Birgunj, Kathmandu and Butwal-Bhairawa to address load-shedding problems; Industrial Enterprise Act to be enacted; lump sum capital subsidy for the import of machinery and capital goods by group of more than 100 people returned from abroad after engaging in similar works; support for floriculture business; Rs 100 million for Women Entrepreneur Fund; custom duties exemption in import of machinery for alternative energy;
• Financial sector and capital market: disclosure of income source while depositing a sum of over Rs 1 million; disclosure of income if on purchase of vehicle worth more than Rs 5 million and real estate more than Rs 10 million; capital gains tax decreased; NRNs can invest in housings and share market; foreigners can purchase flats and apartments of over US$ 200,000; supervision and monitoring of saving and credit co-operatives with annual transactions of more than Rs 50 million; action against willful defaulters; incentives for merger in the form of waving of registration fees;
• Export promotion: special facility to exporters of tea, coffee, cardamom, herbs, unseasonal vegetable products; drying and packaging facility to be made available; upgrade certification laboratory; expedite construction of dry ports at border points; recommendation by concerned agencies for implementing NTIS to pursued; herbs processing plants; work toward implementing SEZs
• Planning: NPC to prepare a 20 year long term plan for socio-economic transformation; results of Census 2011 to be quickly published; agriculture census next year; third party evaluation of foreign aid funded projects; FM to head a monitoring team for monitoring projects of over Rs 150 million;
• Public enterprises: CEO and GM of PEs to be selected through open competition;
• Public service: Salary increased between 30.39% and 42.86%.

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• Revenue policy: Tax incentives to domestic and foreign investors to attract investment in hydropower and infrastructure development; promoting production oriented, import substituting and export oriented industries; broadening revenue bases by expanding tax net; control revenue leakage;
  • Voluntary disclosure of fixed and movable properties to Inland Revenue Offices by paying certain percentage of tax; declare MRP of imported goods at customs point to avoid under-invoicing; increase in excise rates on alcohol, beer, cigarettes, and tobacco products; only persons with PAN number will be eligible for registration process of land and house transactions;
  • Tax exemption for tomato ketchup firms that are run through cooperatives; reduction of flat rate custom duty on LCD, Plasma and LED equipment brought by Nepalese passengers returning from foreign employment; VAT concession to Jute firms on the import of materials; reduction of capital gains tax by 50% on the income from sales of house and land; CGT in shares reduced (for entities 10% and for individuals 5%);
  • Exemption of income tax for first ten years for hydro-power projects commencing construction within August 24, 2014 and starting commercial production by mid-April 2018; extend deadline for merger among BFIs and waiving of land registration fee; 
  • Income tax exemption of 90 percent will be given to any of the special and information technology industry employing 300 or more Nepalis. Similar income-tax exemption of 80 percent will be given to any special industry employing 1,200 or more Nepalis directly. An exemption of 80 percent in the income tax will be given to any special industry which employs more than 100 Nepalis with at least 33 percent of them women, untouchable and differently-abled persons.

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Comments:

• This is a directionless budget. Our macroeconomic challenges (low growth rate, high inflation, balance of payments deficit, ballooning trade deficit, eroding competitiveness of our economy and its productive capacities, slump in manufacturing sector and liquidity and banking crises) are hardly been addressed. In fact, an impression that one gets is that all these will be resolved by promoting cooperatives (this was already hinted in Program and Policies for 2011-2012). In fact, the budget is placing cooperatives above the private sector and it essentially is a cooperatives’ budget as was mentioned in the white paper. Neither in white paper nor the program and policies did FM Adhikari mention these macroeconomic challenges with emphasis. He has been very cosmetic in pointing them out loud and clear. And, his budget lacks vision in addressing these issues. 
• Cooperatives are seen as a solution to the macroeconomic problems faced by the country. It is not a good idea. Even balance of trade deficit is being considered to be addressed by promoting cooperatives.
• Note that due to increasing pressure from other political parties to fund their pet projects under various names and the decision to hike salary of civil servants, recurrent expenditure has shot up by almost 40.09% from last year’s allocation. Meanwhile, this was made up by reducing capital expenditure by at least 43.95% (or 24.36% if you choose to include capital and financing expenditures). It is bad for the economy and does not add much to productive capacities. In fact, it will very likely increase inflation even higher.
• The way the size of the budget is increased will not add much productive capacities and will most probably put upward pressure on inflation. Also, since the revised total expenditure for FY 2010/11 is estimated to be Rs 306.27 billion against budget allocation of Rs 337.9 billion, this year’s allocation would also not be spent as envisioned.
• This allocated amount of development expenditure is not going to be spent given present conditions. Neither was last year’s development expenditure spent (which partly contributed to the liquidity crisis).
• Generating the revenue target is not going to be possible if the current trend is anything to go by. The MoF was unable to collect the projected revenue of Rs 216.64 billion of last year’s budget; it is estimated to collect only Rs 206 billion. I don’t understand why Finance Secretary Baskota is so ambitious. (He did accounting gimmick by including unspent budget as revenue. I think after so much of repudiation from experts and lawmakers, he has corrected the mistake.) It must be that since expenditures could not be brought down, they increased target for revenue mobilization (now total income).
• The increase in domestic borrowing by 11.07% from last year’s budget will mop up liquidity from the market, essentially crowding out private sector investment and worsening liquidity crisis.
• Foreign aid accounts for 25.9% of total budget (Rs 99.78 billion--just sum up foreign grants in total income heading and foreign loans from deficit financing heading). It is an increase by 13.9% from last year. Since the country was unable to even mobilize last year’s total aid, why so much of expectation this year? Absorptive capacity of foreign aid has also been decreasing.
• No concrete steps to curb inflation except for monitoring markets. In fact, inflation will exacerbate due to FM Adhikari’s budget.
• Insufficient and ineffective incentives for merger of BFIs. The relaxation on disclosure of sources of income will not aid much to alleviate the liquidity and banking crises.
• No concrete plan to spur growth rate higher than the usual 3-4%. No explanation how the growth target of 5% and inflation target of 7% are to be reached. FM Adhikari is clueless on this one.
• How on earth will balance of payments (BoP) will be positive from negative of around Rs 12 billion right now without decreasing trade deficit and increasing the growth rate of inflow of remittances. No clue about how to promote exports except for mentioning that it will be based on NTIS 2010 recommendation by the concerned ministry. In fact, of the seven pillars of state growth and development, mainstreaming for industry, trade and service sector is getting only Rs 7.24 billion (up from Rs 4.81 billion last year). Some income tax incentives to companies in SEZs is not going to work when we actually don’t have SEZs and an Act on this regard.
• Overall, this is a lifeless budget with no tooth to make real impact on the productive capacity of the economy and to address the most pressing macroeconomic needs of the country. It is instead a cooperative promoting, ambitious but directionless, and distributive budget. It does not even adequately acknowledge the macroeconomic problems. A budget is not a political tool to hand out taxpayers’ hard earned money!

Vibor does the right thing

After getting rescued by the central bank following liquidity crunch, Vibor Bikas Bank has done the right thing by merging with Bhajuratna Finance Savings, a category ´C´ financial institution. With a competent and knowledgeable CEO, Ajay Ghimire, I think Vibor will emerge strong after this merger. Before that happens it still has to bring its balance sheet in order though and decrease the proportion of risky loans/credit in its loan portfolio. More BFIs should aim for merger by following Vibor’s positive move. Else, without a consolidation of BFIs in the financial sector, a deeper financial crisis in inevitable.

Congratulations to Vibor and Bhajuratna!

Export quality and growth

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Country export quality (measured by unit values) is correlated with income level suggesting that studying quality dynamics potentially offers insights into the development process. This paper uses highly disaggregated trade data to explore the export quality (unit value) dynamics of goods exported to the United States over the 1990-2000 period. In addition to finding considerable heterogeneity in the relative quality of exports across countries and across goods within countries, the authors find that the rate of quality growth varies substantially across countries, as well. Specifically, the fastest growth is seen in exports from the richer (OECD) countries, implying an evolving divergence in product quality across regions. This divergence obtains despite evidence of conditional convergence in quality over time- goods with lower initial relative quality levels experience faster growth in quality. The data suggest that part of this divergence is driven by the product mix itself -- OECD exported products experience intrinsically higher growth rates. This is consistent with the argument of Hausmann, Hwang and Rodrik (2007) that what countries export does matter for growth. However, it is partly driven by a higher growth rate of quality in the richer countries independent of convergence effects, suggesting that other country-specific factors impeding overall convergence are at work. Finally, there is very limited technological "leap-frogging" by countries across product lines as the relative quality of new exports, on average, is roughly the same as incumbent exports, both in richer countries and elsewhere.

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Here is the full paper by Krishna and William (2011).

Links of Interest (2011-07-12)

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1. De and Iacovone on Did NAFTA increase productivity?. “The results show that the North American Free Trade Agreement stimulated the productivity of Mexican plants via: (1) an increase in import competition and (2) a positive effect on access to imported intermediate inputs. However, the impact of trade reforms was not identical for all integrated firms, with fully integrated firms (i.e. firms simultaneously exporting and importing) benefiting more than other integrated firms.” Here is more on NAFTA.

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2. Li, Mengistae and Xu diagnose development bottlenecks in China and India. “The analysis finds that China has better infrastructure, more skilled workers, and more labor-hiring flexibility than India, but a worse access to finance and higher regulatory burden. Infrastructure appears to be a key constraint for India: it lags significantly behind China, yet it has important indirect effects for the effectiveness of labor flexibility. Labor flexibility is also likely a major constraint for India, as evident in the predominance of small firms, the importance of firm size in accounting for India's disadvantage in productivity, and the complementarity of proxies of labor flexibility with infrastructure and access to finance. Interestingly, regulatory uncertainty has adverse effects in India but not in China.”

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3. Khanal and Satyal weigh in the socio-economic impact of remittances. Their basic argument is that the failure to find jobs (or create due to laxity in implementing such policies) is leading to an exodus of workers to foreign employment destinations. They also argue that remittances have not helped in “reducing poverty”. I wonder how they define it because the latest study on remittances find that it has helped to reduce absolute poverty.

The increase in imports, consumption, aiding real estate and housing bubbles, and change in labor supply of returnees are some of the concerns. Remittances have done both good and bad to the economy, both at the household and macro levels. It in itself is not bad. When there are few existing chances of employment in economy and chances of finding new are very slim, exodus of workers is normal. Systematizing such supply of labor by giving training and helping them find good employment opportunities, if they like, elsewhere is not a bad policy in the short run. In the long run, retaining the required at home is crucial. For that, channeling remittances in productive usages as opposed to consumption of imported goods is essential. Nepali policymakers have failed on this front. And, that is the danger.

We are seeing symptoms of Dutch Disease in the economy. Letting it not be a Dutch Disease itself requires a both short run and long run policies. The former is due to our compulsion as we can’t just chock the flow of money just to check ‘brain drain’ (or ‘brain gain’?). People will go anyway if there are no opportunities at home or the opportunities elsewhere are higher than at home. Systematizing this process (though a second best option) in the short term is good for the nation. The first best option is creating opportunities at home, which can be done gradually. Work should be started on both fronts. Note that even if there are opportunities at home, people still do migrate.

Here is Santosh Pokharel’s take on why remitters are drifting away form using formal remittance channels (high fees and lack of awareness).

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4. Bernstein on Obama’s hat tip to Keynes. “The President signaled an understanding of the effectiveness of stimulus along with the need for more of it.” Krugman on “He’s just not that into you”.

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5. Campos and Nugent on why the global financial crisis has been wasted.

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6. Ezekwesili on the birth of the Republic of South Sudan.

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7. Nepal’s budget for FY 2011-2012: The upcoming budget in a new format to make Nepal’s accounting system compatible with international accounting. Any expenditure under the grants and subsidies heading will be considered as recurrent expenditure. Therefore, grants and subsidies that currently fall under capital expenditure will be moved to recurrent expenditure. Revenue and grant will be shown in the income part instead of revenue. Under this heading, tax, other revenues and foreign grants will be included. The principal refund that is currently shown in the revenue heading will be moved to financing part. The principal payment will be moved from the expenditure part.The new budget will have loan investments, capital investment, foreign loans and borrowing under the financing heading. It will be shown under this heading after adjusting refund of loan investment and principal payment of foreign and domestic borrowing. Meanwhile, peace, social inclusion and infrastructure will be the priority (so they say!). Civil servants salary to be hiked by at least 20 percent. Earlier, I argued for why the public sector salary should be increased. Here is my take on Nepal’s policies and programs for FY 2011-2012.

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Female reservation and political outcomes

Deininger, Jin, Nagarajan and Fang (2011) find that in rural India gender quotas led to decline in quality and negative impact on service delivery, it nevertheless have positive impact on women’s political participation, political accountability, and willingness to contribute to public goods. The abstract of the paper is as follows:

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Although many studies have explored the impacts of political quotas for females, often with ambiguous results, the underlying mechanisms and long-term effects have received little attention. This paper uses nationwide data from India spanning a 15-year period to explore how reservations affect leader qualifications, service delivery, political participation, local accountability, and individuals’ willingness to contribute to public goods. Although leader quality declines and impacts on service quality are often negative, gender quotas are shown to increase the level and quality of women's political participation, the ability to hold leaders to account, and the willingness to contribute to public goods. Key effects persist beyond the reserved period and impacts on females often materialize only with a lag.

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May be the Nepalese leaders and policymakers, who are ever-active in reserving quotas in all sectors for women, could learn something from the findings of this study.